Orthodox Sociological Understandings of Work, Employment...

Orthodox Sociological Understandings of Work, Employment and Professions There is a wealth of sociological literature concerned with understanding work, employment and the professions but until recently there has been little concern with women and work. For many years, sociologists concentrated on the work of white males and on paid employment. But since the Second World War there has been a gradual increase of women entering the labour market thus creating an interest in the work carried out by women. There has also been a great feminist interest in the sociology of work, employment and the professions and this has both challenged and increased traditional understandings of work. Classical†¦show more content†¦However, a woman’s class position is not always equal to that of her male partner as has been pointed out by feminists. Many women do not have a male partner so cannot be placed in a class position in this way. Also, some women earn more than their partners and therefore could be seen to be in a higher class position. Feminist researchers and theorists have sought to include women in studies of work, employment and the professions as they are an important social category in themselves. Many feminists argue that the model of work is a patriarchal model in which women are exploited and subordinated by men. Marxist feminist, Heidi Hartmann put forward a dual systems theory of work in which a system of capitalism works alongside a system of patriarchy in order to secure the male domination of women. She claims that there is a material basis for the power of male domination and this takes the form of all social structures which enable men to control women’s labour both ‘public’ and ‘private’. She also believes that occupational segregation ensures that women are concentrated in low paying jobs and excluded from better paying jobs and the professions. This provides women’s cheap labour for capitalists while in turn benefiting men as they remain in power. Domestic labour including housework, childcare and so on had previouslyShow MoreRelatedGendered Concept Dimensions Of Disability1913 Words   |  8 Pagesexperience public sp aces as appalling, pressurizing and unsafe when compared to disabled men (Meekosha 4-5). Savulescu (771) depicts number of arguments and real life situations in his work where he conveys that women who have disability are helpless, disadvantaged, because they confide on someone else for their work and their quality of life is subordinate. This is conveyed in an example of â€Å"Deafness, they would say, is a disability. Deaf†¦. are denied the world sound, music†¦.communication† (SavulescuRead MoreSociology and Other Sciences7090 Words   |  29 Pagessocial phenomena. Along with Herbert Spencer, he was one of the first people to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to what function they served in maintaining the quotidian (i.e. by how they make society work), and is thus sometimes seen as a precursor to functionalism. Durkheim also insisted that society was more than the sum of its parts. Thus unlike his contemporaries Ferdinand Tà ¶nnies and Max Weber, he focused not on what motivates the actions of individualsRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesa text that will give a good idea of the breadth and complexity of this important subject, and this is precisely what McAuley, Duberley and Johnson have provided. They have done some sterling service in bringing together the very diverse strands of work that today qualify as constituting the subject of organisational theory. Whilst their writing is accessible and engaging, their approach is scholarly and serious. It is so easy for students (and indeed others who should know better) to trivialize thisRead MoreTravel and Tourism Administration Program Structure20692 Words   |  83 Pagesprogram is to produce computing and information systems professionals, who will have the understanding of the technology and the necessary knowledge and skills to be able to work at a high level in the related industry. The main concern is with t he utilization of technology and support in a modern enterprise. Upon successful completion of this program students will be able to demonstrate an understanding of the fundamental characteristics of information systems and their role within organizationsRead MoreGame Theory and Economic Analyst83847 Words   |  336 Pageseconomics. The chapters fall broadly into two categories. Some lay out in a jargon-free manner a particular branch of the theory, the evolution of one of its concepts, or a problem that runs through its development. Others are original pieces of work that are signiï ¬ cant to game theory as a whole. After taking the reader through a concise history of game theory, the contributors discuss such topics as: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the connections between Von Neumann’s mathematical game theory and theRead MoreChange Management49917 Words   |  200 PagesChange 3. Planned Change 5. Unplanned Change 2. 4. 6. Stimulating Forces Change Agents Lewin’s Three Step Model The change means the alteration of status quo or making things different. It may refer to any alteration which occurs in the overall work environment of an organization. When an organizational system is disturbed by some internal or external force, the change may occur. The change is modification of the structure or process of a system, that may be good or even bad. It disturbs the existingRead MoreContemporary Issues in Management Accounting211377 Words   |  846 PagesMichael Bromwich is an exemplar of all that is good about the British tradition of academic accounting. Serious in intent, he has striven both to illuminate practice and to provide ways of improving it. Although always appealing to his economic understandings, he has been open to a wide variety of other ideas, recognizing their intellectual strengths and capabilities rather than making artificial distinctions between what is acceptable and what is not. He also has contributed widely to the accountingRead MorePractic al Guide to Market Research62092 Words   |  249 PagesAll rights reserved Copyright  © Paul Hague Paul Hague is hereby identified as author of this work in accordance with Section 77 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 This book is published by Grosvenor House Publishing Ltd 28–30 High Street, Guildford, Surrey, GU1 3HY. www.grosvenorhousepublishing.co.uk This book is sold subject to the conditions that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the author’s or publisher’s prior

The Importance of Ethics in Society Essay - 883 Words

Ethics are moral principles or values that govern the conduct of an individual or a group.It is not a burden to bear, but a prudent and effective guide which furthers life and success. Ethics are important not only in business but in academics and society as well because it is an essential part of the foundation on which a civilized society is built. Ethical behaviour is what all career people should aim to have. Not just the ethical attribute but exceptional behaviour with this regard.this is because in order to build a career, one must be governed by the rules of ethics to safeguard oneself and others. Ethics are essential in the workplace because a tough ethical code provides a non-threatening environment with high†¦show more content†¦The truth is that, these traits are becoming rare in careers. Having respect and the right attitude at work wil help a person to develop not only at work but in life as well. Academic dishonesty is another facet of unethical behaviour. It is an action or attempt that results in creating an unfair academic advantage for oneself or a disadvantage for any other member of academic community. A child uses his or her experiences in society to shape personal ethics. Family has a strong influence on ones values and behaviour,parents establish rules from the start and it becomes the basis for our ethics and morals. A personal ethical commitment is part of what makes students a success. A lack of ethical commitment will always result in acdemic failure. I personally believe that students who are academically dishonest cheat themselves out of an education and harm their fellow students by screwing the grading curve for the class as a whole. Therefore academic ethics are vital and students should commit themselves to maintaining highest personal ethical standards. In society today, people tend to make decisions based on the actions and choices of others. Peer pressure is a very real issue that affects most of the teenagers of the world today. it is a dangerous form of persuasion. It causes teenagers to easily succumb to unethical activities under the influence and pressure of their friends. people see the effects ofShow MoreRelatedImportance Of Ethics Essay728 Words   |  3 PagesIntroduction Ethics is a crucial part of employment because we want businesses to be fair, clean and beneficial to the society. For the reason, organizations have to establish ethics or rule of law, engage themselves in fair practices and competition. These things will give benefit to the consumer, the society and organization. This report will introduce about the ethics. Especially reasons of the importance of ethic and influences on workplace will be represented in the report. 2. 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Why Do You Think This Strategy Became Less Viable in the 1990’s Free Essays

string(136) " first entered foreign markets in the period up until the early 1990s\? b\) Why do you think this strategy became less viable in 1990s\." Chapter 12 – The Strategy of International Business Key Points of the chapter Strategy – is the actions managers take to attain the goals of the business (usually to maximize value for the shareholders/stakeholders). Value Chain – The operations of the firm compose the value chain which are the series of value creating activities that occur to create value. These actions include sales, production, IT, accounting etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Do You Think This Strategy Became Less Viable in the 1990’s? or any similar topic only for you Order Now These activities are divided into support and primary activities. Primary Activities – Design, creation and delivery of the product. They are: 1. RD 2. Production 3. Marketing 4. Sales Support Activities – Inputs that allow the primary activities to occur 1. Information Systems 2. Logistics 3. Human Resources Global Expansion Practices 1. Expand the market for your domestic products by selling internationally (Export) †¢ Requires a company to tap into their core competencies 2. Move production to the most efficient countries to realize location economies †¢ Some countries have a comparative advantage of production †¢ Transportation costs and trade barriers must not be an issue †¢ Location Economies is the value created by finding the most competitive place to produce product, therefore adding value i. Competitive can mean cheapest or best †¢ Creates a global value web as opposed to a value chain 3. Serve expanded markets from a single location, while recovering experience effects †¢ Experience curve: Systematic reductions in production costs that occur over the life of a product i. A products production costs decline each time the cumulative output doubles †¢ Learning Effects – Costs savings through learning by doing †¢ Economies of Scale – Reduce costs by creating a large volume of product, the larger your market, the more opportunity for this you receive. 4. Learn from foreign operations to increase your value Mature multinationals who already have operations in foreign markets can learn from their operations in order to create value for those specific customers. Pressures for Cost Reduction Managers can be forced to create value by reducing costs. This can be done through: †¢ Mass-produce a standard product †¢ Outsource certain functions †¢ Tends to occur in highly commoditized products (Chemicals, sugar, gas, steel) Pressures for local Responsiveness Arise because of: †¢ Difference in consumer tastes and preferences †¢ Infrastructure †¢ Accepted Business practices Distribution channels – May require a change in marketing strategy †¢ Host government demands International Expansion Strategies Global Expansion Strategy Focus †¢ Reaping cost reduction benefits through: †¢ Economies of Scale †¢ Learning effects †¢ Locations economies †¢ Low Cost on a Global Scale Method †¢ RD, Production and Marketing activities are concentrated in a few favorable locations †¢ Try not to customize their products/marketing strategy †¢ Use aggressive pricing When to use it †¢ Strong pressures for cost reductions †¢ Minimal demand for localization Localization Strategy Focus †¢ Increase profitability by customizing goods to match tastes and preferences in international markets Method †¢ Increase the value of the product in the local market †¢ Duplication of functions †¢ Smaller production runs †¢ Still need to be as efficient as possible When to use it †¢ When cost pressures are not high †¢ When local tastes differ dramatically †¢ When you have fewer competitors Transnational Strategy Focus †¢ Multidirectional transfer of core competencies and skills †¢ Leveraging subsidy skills Try to achieve low costs through location economies, economies of scale and learning effects while differentiating their products for the local market. †¢ Very difficult to accomplish Method †¢ Redesign products to use the same components and produce them in one location †¢ Use assembly plants in key markets to assemble the more market specific final product When to use it †¢ When cu stomization and cost reduction pressures are high †¢ When managers have to balance the divergent pressures International Strategy Focus †¢ Taking products from your local country and without much customization, selling them in other markets. Method †¢ Centralize product development functions †¢ Tend to establish manufacturing and marketing functions in each major country or geographic region in which they do business. †¢ Increases costs but there are no cost pressures so that isn’t an issue †¢ May decide to do some minor customization of the marketing strategy When to use it †¢ Low cost pressures †¢ Low need for local responsiveness †¢ Selling products that serve universal needs †¢ Do not have many competitors Chapter Questions Q2: What are the risks that Wal-Mart Faces when entering other retail markets? How can the risks be mitigated? Economic Risks/Exposure Likelihood that economic mismanagement will cause drastic changes in a country’s business environment that hurt the profit and other goals of a particular business enterprise. †¢ Increase in inflation can hurt profits †¢ Recession †¢ Loss of confidence in the market and loans Legal Risks If Wal-Mart decides to enter a market where the legal system fails to provide adequate safeguards in the case of contract violations or to protect property rights they are opening themselves up to legal risks. Could affect the ability to participate in long term contracts and joint ventures Cross Cultural Literacy Risk: As experienced in this case, Wal-Mart suffered from cross cultural illiteracy, where they were ill informed about the practices of another culture which caused them to make bad decisions. Mitigation Strategy: Wal-Mart needs an adaptation strategy, which allows them to negotiate properly for the market, know the appropriate pay systems, set up the right organization, etc. They can do this by hiring local citizens, or a consultant. Transaction Exposure Risk: Extent to which foreign exchange values affect the income from individual transactions. Translation Exposure Risk: Impact of currency exchange rates on the reported financial statements. Mitigation Strategy: Lead strategy where you collect the foreign receivables early. Lag strategy, involves delaying payables if the currency is expected to appreciate. Political Risks Depending on where Wal-Mart is choosing to expand to, political forces that ould cause a drastic change in the country’s business environment could adversely affect the profit and other goals of a business enterprise. †¢ Strikes †¢ Demonstrations †¢ Terrorism †¢ Violent Conflict †¢ Enactment of unfavorable business laws CT 5 – Reread the management focus on the evolution of strategy at Procter and Gamble, then answer these questions: a) What strategy was PG pursuing when it first entered foreign markets in the period up until the early 1990s? b) Why do you think this strategy became less viable in 1990s. You read "Why Do You Think This Strategy Became Less Viable in the 1990’s?" in category "Papers" In the pre-1990’s era PG found their international expansion through the use of a localization strategy. They did develop many of their products in Cincinnati, but they relied on their semi-autonomous subsidiaries to manufacture, market and customize many of their products for the local markets their served. This model started to show signs of strain when many of the trade barriers that existed, specifically between European countries were lifted. This created an increase in competition, and for PG exposed their now unnecessary duplication of assets and processes. Also the creation of the â€Å"big box† retailers (such as Wal-Mart and Tesco) were causing the competitive factors driven by purchasing power to put pressures on lowering PG’s prices even further. Due to the increase in competition and the changing market conditions PG closed some of their local plants and asked their subsidiaries to exploit as much economies of scale as possible in their production lines. They also asked their local centers to create and use global brands whenever possible to try and reduce marketing costs. While these cost avings were effective, they were still not enough and PG then reorganized the company to be a pure Transnational Strategy, with more control occurring in the regional centers than ever before and using as little local responsiveness as possible to reach their customers so they could compete on price as much as possible. The benefits of the transnational strategy include: †¢ Cost reduction †¢ Reducing duplication of assets †¢ Creating global brands †¢ Manufacturing in places that have a comparative advantage in the production of that product †¢ Increase market share by beating your competitors prices Risks †¢ Very difficult to implement manage †¢ Organizational Structures have to be very complex and it can lead to o Performance ambiguity o Confusion over corporate goals o Culture issues †¢ High coordination needs that are both formal and informal Chapter 13 – The Organization of International Business Key Points of the Chapter Organizational Architecture: the totality of a firm’s organization, organizational culture and people. These three areas must be addressed for a company to be successful in the global market place. The architecture must match the strategy of the firm. Organizational structure: Formal division of the organization, the location of the decision making (centralize vs. decentralized) and the establishment of intergrating mechanisms to coordinate the activities of subunits. Control Systems are metrics used to measure the performance of subunits and make judgments about how well managers are running those subunits. Incentives are the divides used to reward appropriate managerial behavior. Incentrives are very closely tied to performance metrics. Processes are the manner in which decisions are made and work is performed within the organization. Organizational Culture refers to the norms and values systems that the employees of an organization share. Organizations are societies of individuals who come together to perform collective tasks. [pic] Organizational Structure 1) Vertical Differentiation – location of decision making a) Centralized – When the decisions are made by upper management Pros: †¢ Can facilitate coordination †¢ Ensure decisions are consistent with organizational objectives †¢ Give top level manager the means to bring about changes (authority) †¢ Avoid duplication of activities ) Decentralized – Local managers make the decisions †¢ Top management can become overburdened when decision making authority is centralized, which can result in poor decisions. †¢ Motivational research favors decentralization, people are more likely to give more to their jobs when they have a greater degree of individual freedom and control over their work. †¢ More rapid response †¢ Can result in better decisions because the people with the best information are the ones making the decisions. †¢ Can increase control, making the management more autonomous and therefore accountable. Frequently it makes sense to centralize some decisions and to decentralize others, depending on the type of decisions and the firm’s strategy. 2) Horizontal Differentiation – formal organization structure Decision is made on functions, type of business or geographical area. †¢ International Division – When a single division runs all the international activities. Facilitates the international strategy. †¢ Worldwide area structure – World is divided into geographic areas, each division has its own value creation activities. Facilitates local responsiveness. Difficult to transfer core competencies. Worldwide product divisional structure – Each division has its own value creation activities organized around the products they produce. Headquarters retain responsibility for the overall strategic development and financial control. Gives opportunities to consolidate the value chain creation of different subunits. Can require a lack of local respon siveness. †¢ Global Matrix Structure – Tries to solve the issue Bartlett and Ghoshal have argued where a company needs to be price competitive and locally responsive by creating a matrix where decisions are made by both product and regional managers. It is very difficult to pull off a global matrix structure as it creates conflict for the employees having two bosses with two different goals. In light of these problems many firms that pursue a transnational strategy have tried to build flexible matrix structures based on enterprisewide management knowledge networks and a shared dual culture. 3) Integrating Mechanism – mechanisms for coordinating subunits †¢ The need for integrating mechanisms changes with the strategy, the company is using: Lowest – Localization strategy Highest – Global and Transnational †¢ Very important in firms trying to transfer core competencies between units †¢ Very important in firms trying to recover economies of scale and learning experience with a web like value â€Å"chain† Questions CT2 – Discuss the statement â€Å"An understanding of the causes and consequences of performance ambiguity is central to issue of organizational design in multinational firms. † Performance Ambiguity exists when the causes of a subunit’s poor performance are not clear. This is not uncommon when a subunit’s performance is partly dependent on the performance of other subunits; when there is high interdependence between different subunits. In firms not pursuing a localization strategy, certain degrees of performance ambiguity are going to exist. In an international strategy, integration is required to facilitate the transfer of core competencies and skills. The success of a foreign operation is partly dependent on the quality of the competencies transferred from the home country, therefore these firms must design an organizational strategy with enough integrating mechanisms to achieve this. In firms pursuing a global standardization strategy they need to recover location and experience curve economies, making many of the firms processes interdependent. This will require even greater controls and integrating mechanisms and make the decisions more complex and the decision tradeoffs more substantial (i. e. save money on this product or spend money to make it easy to sell the product). Firms with the highest level of performance ambiguity are transnational firms. The multidirectional transfer of competencies requires significant interdependence and lots of join decision making, making the performance ambiguity very high. This means the control costs are going to be highest in transnational firms and that many of the costs recovered by the transnational strategy are lost to creating the expensive control systems that must exist to facilitate the strategy. Another byproduct of this strategy is that global and transnational firms need to do more than use only output controls of objective performance metrics such as profits, productivity and market share in order to control their subsidiaries. These firms must look into cultural controls, encouraging managers to want to assume he norms and value systems and use those values to solve problems between the interdependent units and avoid finger pointing based on the output results. CT5 – If a firm is changing its strategy from an international to a transnational strategy what are the most important challenges it is likely to face in implementing this change? How can the firm overcome these challenges? While becoming a multinational firm does not require a strategy change, in order to compete in the global economy and be the best at what you do, organizational change may become a requirement. First the company must decide their strategy and then they must develop an appropriate organizational structure to complement those goals. A transnational strategy focuses on the simultaneous attainment of location and experience curve economies, local responsiveness and global learning. This firm may want to look into a matrix structure where managers from regional and product areas come together to make decisions that will benefit both points of view. They need to implement control systems that will allow them to work with their globally dispersed value chain and to transfer core competencies and therefore will likely be more culturally driven then output driven. Decisions should be made at both a centralized and decentralized level depending on what the company needs to transfer between units and what specifically about the product needs to be locally responsive (e. . branding/marketing). There needs to be a mix of informal and formal integrating mechanisms which can be found in the decision matrix and via informal networking tools (e. g. Twitter). Finally there needs to be strong culture cultivation to keep all the units on the same page which can be accomplished by a strong leadership with good vision and a willingness to participate in the dissemination of that vision. According to the text the three basic principals for performing organizational change include: 1) Unfreeze the corporation through shock therapy Incremental changes are not necessarily enough †¢ People can easily reject or avoid incremental change †¢ In this case the announcement of a dramatically different structural organization to facilitate the new goals †¢ Senior managers must lead the way in the changes and the unfreezing process 2) Move the org to a new state through proactive change in the architecture †¢ Reassigning the responsibilities in the new organization †¢ Changing the control systems to be less output based and more culturally based †¢ Letting people go who are unwilling to change †¢ The changes must be done quickly Involving the employees from the beginning will get their buy in and will makes the changes better received. 3) Refreeze the org in its new state †¢ This step can take longer †¢ It requires culture es tablishment while the old one is dismantled †¢ Re-socialization of employee behaviors †¢ Hiring policies must change †¢ Control systems must be tested and be consistent with the new culture and ignore the old one †¢ The upper management must be diligent and not allow the old pressure to creep up Chapter 14 – Entry Strategy and Strategic Alliances Key Chapter Points Two Major Ideas: 1) The decision of which foreign markets to enter, when to enter them and on what scale 2) The choice of entry mode Which Market (Recap of chapter 2) The attractiveness of a country as a potential market depends on balancing the benefits, costs and risks associated with doing business in that country †¢ Long Run economic benefits of a function of size of the market, present wealth, likelihood of future wealth †¢ Future economic growth, which is a function of a free market system and the country’s capacity for wealth. †¢ Riskier in politically and economical ly unstable countries †¢ What kind of value the firm can create for consumers in that market Timing of Entry Early entry – when a firm enters a foreign market before others do First movers advantage †¢ Pre-empt rivals †¢ Gain market share †¢ Establish a strong brand Creating switching costs to tie your buyers to you †¢ Set the price so you can cut prices when competitors arrive First movers disadvantage †¢ Pioneering costs, from the foreign business system being so different that time and expense must be sacrificed to learn the ropes †¢ Business failure if the firm makes mistakes based on bad knowledge †¢ Promotion of a new product or idea Late Entry – When a firm enters a foreign market after other firms do †¢ Can watch what your competitors do, and learn from their mistakes †¢ Can ride the coattails of their marketing and promotion †¢ Don’t need to educate your customers Scale of entry †¢ Large scale Requires significant resource commitment which can lead to strategy commitments, where you can’t get out of the deal without suffering significant consequences o It does create a presence and instills belief that you are committed to your product and customers †¢ Small Scale o Allows a firm to learn the market without exposing the firm to risks o Way to gather information o Lack of commitment may make it harder to attract customers Entry Modes Exporting Advantages †¢ Avoids substantial costs of establish manufacturing operations in another country †¢ May help the firm achieve experience curve, location economies and economies of scale Disadvantages It may be cheaper to produce abroad †¢ High transportation costs on shipping could make it uneconomical to export †¢ Tariff barriers may prohibit your exporting, making it uneconomical, and the threat of tariff barriers can make it risky †¢ Delegates of the company that perform the sales, marketing, se rvice may work for other competitors and therefore will not have your best interests in mind Turnkey Projects – The contractor agrees to handle every detail of the project for a foreign clients, including the training of operational personnel. At the end the client is handed the â€Å"key† to a fully functional plant. Typically in complex production businesses. Advantages The know how is a valuable asset and you can earn returns on that knowledge †¢ Useful when FDI is limited †¢ Can be less risky than traditional FDI Disadvantages †¢ No long term interest in that country †¢ May create a competitor out of the creator of your factory †¢ Could be selling your comparative advantage Licensing – The licensor grants the rights to intangible property to another entity for a specified period, and in return, he licensor receives a royalty fee from the licensee. Advantages †¢ Licensee puts up most of the capital †¢ Good for firms lacking capital †¢ Prohibited from direct investment in a foreign market Disadvantages (3 serious ones) Does not give tight control over manufacturing, marketing, strategy, etc. that si required for realizing the experience curve and location economies. †¢ Limits a firms ability to share wealth amongst various divisions, and therefore limits a coordinated international strategy †¢ Giving away your comparative advantage Franchising – a specialized form of licensing in which the franchiser sells the IP, but also the franchisee needs to follow those specific rules the franchisor sets out. Advantages †¢ Firm is relieved of many of the costs and risks †¢ Good for firms lacking capital †¢ Good when you are prohibited from FDI in that country †¢ Allows you to build a global presence quickly Disadvantage Great for services, but perhaps not manufacturing †¢ Limits a firms ability to share wealth amongst various divisions, and therefore limits a coordina ted international strategy †¢ There are different definitions of quality, safety, etc. in different places making it difficult to maintain your image across other countries Joint Ventures – Establishing a firm that is jointly owned by two or more otherwise independent firms, it’s popular mode of entry into foreign markets. Advantages †¢ Get to benefit from the local firm’s knowledge of the host country culture, norms, language, political situation, etc. †¢ Provide the local knowhow to a new country †¢ Share the risks with another company Sometime political factors make it impossible not to partner with a local firm Disadvantages †¢ Risking giving away your comparative advantage to a potential competitor †¢ The firm doesn’t have tight control over local operations, making it difficult for companies needing to transfer a culture †¢ Shared ownership can lead to conflicts between the two corporations, which can be exacerbate d by the fact that the two firms are from different nations. Wholly Owned Subsidiary – The firm owns 100% of the stock in the project. Can be done through a Greenfield venture, where you build a factory from scratch or via acquisition of an existing enterprise. Advantages †¢ Protect your knowledge Tight control †¢ Required to gain experience and locations economies †¢ Can engage in global strategic behaviors Disadvantages †¢ High costs and risks †¢ Culture transfer can be difficult, especially in terms of an acquisition Chapter Questions Tesco Q2 – How does Tesco create value in its international operations? Tesco creates value by offering something that the market is lacking: a well run competitive grocery store. They enter emerging markets with growth potential and few competitors. They then acquire or partner with current enterprises in that country in order to ensure that the value they are creating will work for that particular consumer. Tesco researches their potential partners carefully, and they pick a solid chain with some stores and they build off of that known base. They bring to the table their core competencies, but they don’t remove the local managers who have the knowledge of the customer. Finally they have the capital and the retailing know-how to bring their moderately successful firms into a globally back force. This value is created out of successfully leveraging the joint venture strategy, where both firms bring something useful to the table and both are given the opportunity to be successful with their knowledge. Grocery stores are part service and part goods firms. Tesco’s strengths exist in both, but they are leveraging their service and management know-how transfer through the use of the joint venture. We know that value creation is measured by the difference between the converted inputs that create the cost of a product and how much the consumer is willing to pay for that product. More specifically in this case it is the amount consumers are willing to pay for the goods inside of the Tesco subsidiary. Porter states that it is important for the firm to decide where it wants to be strategically positioned in terms of cost effectiveness, and differentiation. Tesco wants to be a low cost provider of all the goods a consumer would purchase at a grocery store. They compete through their value chain by gaining purchasing power through expansion, and by leveraging their values skills in foreign markets. CT 5 – A small Canadian firm that has developed some valuable new medical products using its unique biotechnology know-how is trying to decide how best to serve the EU. Establishing a manufacturing firm outside of Canada is not outside of the firm’s reach, but it will be a stretch. Which of the following options would you recommend and why? a) Manufacture the product at home and let foreign sales agents handle the marketing. b) Manufacture the product at home and set up wholly own subsidiaries in Europe to handle marketing c) Enter into an alliance with a large European pharmaceutical firm. The product would be manuf in Europe y the 50/50 joint venture and marketed by the European firm. As stated in the text, if the firm’s core competency is the based on control over proprietary technological know-how, it should avoid licensing and joint-venture arrangements if possible to minimize the risks of losing control over that technology (option C). While the strategic alliance will allow for entry into the foreign market, I don’t feel that the EU is such a different type of market that it would be impossible to find someone in the US who they could hire to help them understand that market. The partnership can give competitors low cost access to the new technology and markets. Wholly owned subsidiaries for marketing would allow for the marketing to be owned by the firm and therefore reduce the risks associated with using the local sales agents that may serve their own interests in lieu of the firm’s. However, I suggest that the core competency of the firm is not their marketing skills, but rather their technological know-how. This means that they would be choosing to take on major risks and expenses in order to transfer a non core competency and therefore find themselves at risk of failure. Going back to the Lincoln electric case, we saw how selecting a mode of entry strategy on something other than your comparative can lead to significant issues. Exporting (option a) allows for the firm to realize location economies, experience curve economies while suffering from high transport costs, trade barriers and problems with local marketing agents. In this instance, the cost of shipping medical instruments is typically quite low, and the trade barriers between Canada and EU are nonexistent. However, they may find the local sales agents to be at odds with other competitors making it difficult to distribute the product. Despite this drawback however, I feel that the financial risks associated with option b and the dangers of losing their core competency in option c I would use the less risky option a. Chapter 15 – Exporting, Importing and Counter Trade Key Chapter Points Chapter Questions CT3 – An alternative to using letter of credit is export credit insurance. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the credit insurance rather than a letter of credit for exporting: a) A luxury yacht from California to Canada b) Machine tools from New York to the Ukraine A letter of credit, abbreviated as L/C is: †¢ Issued by the bank at the request of the importer †¢ States the bank will pay a specified sum of money to a beneficiary, normally the exporter, on presentation of particular, specified documents †¢ Charge a percentage to the importer as a fee for the service †¢ May require the importer to do some type of deposit †¢ It is a financial contract †¢ Allows for the banks to determine the creditworthiness of your trade partner, so no relationship must exist for the trade to take place Export Credit Insurance: Sometimes exporters who require a letter of credit from an importer will lose their business to another exporter who doesn’t require all the additional work †¢ Thus when the importer is in a str ong bargaining position and able to play competing suppliers against each other, an exporter may have to forgo a letter of credit. †¢ This exposes the exporter to risk †¢ The exporter can protect themselves against that risk through the us of exporter insurance †¢ The FCIA provides coverage against commercial and political risks. Losses due to commercial risk result from the buyers insolvency or payment default. a) Because the competition for selling this product is somewhat high I would expect the buyer to have more power than the seller and therefore I could see them asking the seller to forgo the letter of credit. If that is the case export credit insurance will be the likely route to manage the trade. However, if the seller can get the buyer to comply the letter of credit between the reputable Canadian bank and the US bank will be a good asset to leverage if possible. b) Because of the nature of the transaction, the letter of credit may be the best solution. This way the seller can insure that the buyer is credit worthy and the bank will take care of the relationship needs so the buyer and seller do not have to create a relationship. My only concern would be that of the Ukrainian bank and whether you can trust their banking system. It may be more prudent to use the exporter insurance again to guard against the ever present political and economic risks in that country. ———————– Structure Incentives controls Processes Culture People How to cite Why Do You Think This Strategy Became Less Viable in the 1990’s?, Papers

Theory of Personality Development and Composed

Question: 1. Omar recently received a text message from an old girlfriend, Kristina, asking him to go out on a date. The decision of how to respond is causing Omar a significant amount of anxiety because he still has feelings for Kristina but he knows it would be inappropriate to see her considering he is currently in a relationship with another woman. With respect to their various structures of personality as outlined by Sigmund Freud, explain the position of Omars id, ego, and superego in this scenario. a.) If Omar were to see his old girlfriend despite being in another relationship, he would likely experience a sense of guilt. Give an example of how Omar could use a defense mechanism to alleviate his sense of guilt. 2. Use the following scenarios to explain the concept of fixations and how they develop during childhood, according to Sigmund Freud. a.) Jennifer has always struggled with controlling her bad habits such as drinking, smoking, and overeating. Whenever she gets anxious she tends to bite her nails and the last time she tried to quit smoking she gained 10 pounds because she was constantly eating. b.) Erika is often describes as being very uptight by her coworkers. She is constantly stressing the importance of keeping the office clean and organized and she is very controlling over group projects. Even after everyone has made their contributions, she typically redoes the entire project on her own. 3. Billy is a high school sophomore interested in joining the swim team but he knows that joining the swim team will disappoint his dad because Billys dad really wants him to play football like he did in high school. With respect to Carl Rogers self theory, explain Billys relationship with his father and what it means for Billys ability to self-actualize. 4. Daisy is a senior in high school. She has a boyfriend whom she has been dating for 6 months, and she spends so much of her time with him and thinking about marrying him that she completely neglects her school work and college applications. She is in danger of not graduating and not attending college. How might Abraham Maslow explain her situation in terms of the hierarchy of needs? 5. Consider people who believe in luck, fate, or the influence of deities (gods) on success vs. those who do not believe in such things. How does this relate to the concept of internal vs. external locus of control? In terms of physical and psychological health, how are these people different? 6. Brian was recently passed up for a promotion at work. With respect to the self-serving bias and internal vs. external attributions, how is Brian likely to explain his failure? 7. Jo and Angela both failed their last psychology exam, and they are talking about it to each other. Jo says I know I could have done better; I just didnt study enough. Angela says, That test was just so unfair. Who is making an external attribution? Who is making an internal attribution? Who is using the self-serving bias? Explain. 8. Describe the following individuals using one trait from the Five Factor Model of personality. Identify whether the individual has high levels or low levels of the trait. Jenny is very easily bothered by the people in her study group. She believes that she is always right and is inconsiderate of the other members opinions. Kristina is often described as the life of the party. She often goes out to dance clubs and likes to meet new people. Brandon really enjoys his math class but doesnt seem to like any of the others. Every day for lunch he brings a ham and cheese sandwich from home and avoids eating at ethnic restaurants, like Indian or Korean, because he thinks they are weird. Cassandra and Tony are complete opposites when it comes to their calendars. Cassandra has most of her days filled with reminders and appointments, whereas Tony doesnt and is constantly forgetting about meetings and events. Susana is referred to as her friends as a worry-wart. She is constantly worrying about schoolwork, bills, and her family, so much so that she seems to check her email, bank statements, and calendars over 10 times a day to make sure she hasnt forgotten anything, and she calls to check on her family members several times during the day. Answer: 1. According to the theory of personality composed by Sigmund Freud, personality is comprised of three elements- the id, the ego and the superego. These three elements together contribute to the complex human behavior. The very first component of personality is the id, which is present in the human being from birth and totally unconscious in nature. The id is come out from instinctive behavior such as survival, aggression, and reproduction thus acts as the source of psychiatric energy. The instinct of Omar has left some feeling for his old girlfriend. The ego helps one individual to understand the reality and teach how to deal with it. The ego originates from the id and it comes out in a manner, which is acceptable to deal with the reality. The ego works in both conscious and unconscious mind including the preconscious mind. The ego supports the basic desire of the id and represents in a realistic way. The ego also helps to release the tension by finding an object in the real world that supports the mental image of the primary source. Here Omar is aware of the reality that it would be unfair to see his old girlfriend as he is already in a relationship. The last component of the personality is the superego. The superego holds all the moral standards that an individual achieve from the family and society both in right and wrong sense of aspect. It provides the guideline that helps the individual to make a judgment. The sense of superego begins at the age of five. The two parts of superego include the ego ideal and the conscience. These two parts include the standards approved by parents or other social figure and the information that leads to punishment. In this case, Omar feeling anxiety and giving priority to the decision of not to meet Kristina from the decision making policy he adopts from the superego. Omar is feeling anxiety as the ego is not enough to meet the demand of the id and superego. He can alleviate his sense of anxiety by preparing a defense mechanism on the aspect of denial, rationalization, repression and projection. Denial can help to block the sense of anxiety from previous experience of awareness. Rationalization will help Omar to create a reason to ignore felling of guilt. Repression is an unconscious mechanism. It forces the memories associated with anxiety to remain in unconscious mind. The projection will help Omar to compare with someone of same vulnerability to suppress his anxiety. 2. The case of Jennifer has highlights the struggle to control the bad habit of smoking and drinking and her gain in ten pounds weight because of constant eating behavior. The scenario lies upon the fixation concept originate from the Psychosexual Stage theory proposed by Sigmund Freud. The following case shows the unfulfilled oral stage of development of Jennifer as she bites her nails and has an excessive drinking and eating habit. Biting the nails and eating habit results from the oral aggressiveness and orally passiveness respectively. During oral stage, the individual finds oral pleasure through sucking, biting and chewing. The insufficient gratified results in the fixation which Jennifer persists throughout her entire lifespan. The oral stage development shows the impact of childhood experience on the personality on the later stage of life. Jennifer is also facing a problem with her rise in weight due to excessive eating habit. The following case is associated with the stressing issue of Erika to keep the office clean and keep the task in order. She is also reported with controlling the working group for projects. In this case, the psychosexual stage theory suggests that some difficulties during the phallic stage development and latency stage development results in the fixation in Erika. According to Freud, during the age of 3-6, the id of an individual develop an attraction to opposite sex parents in unconscious mind. In the case of Erika, a disruption in gender role identification has led to the consequence of anxiety with her coworkers. Moreover, unfulfilled latency stage is another reason that makes Erika redo the project work after the coworkers finish the task. During the latency stage an individual focus on the group behavior like schooling, sports, some particular hobbies and friendship with other children of same age. The latency period begins at the age of three and seven and it continued to the a ge of twelve. 3. According to Carl Rogers, as a flower grows to its full potential if the environmental factors are for the flower; the human can also achieve their potential if the environment supports. Every human is concerned with one basic motive, which is termed as self-actualization. Self-actualization drives an individual to fulfill the potential and take it to the highest level. But the human potential is different from that of the flower as the human can develop aspects to fulfill their potential by judging their personality. Every individual has their creative mind and potential. As in this case, Billy is interested to join the swim team as he feels that swimming will help him to flourish in life. The creativity of the individual often hampers by the fragile self-concept and external pressure that misguide the potential. Here, Billy's father wants him to continue his football practice as his father used to play football in high school. He believes that Billy will also do well in high sch ool football. Billys self-actualization allows him to find his potential in swimming, but his father has set condition of worth. Billy's father is not showing the positive attitude towards Billy's decision and it deviate Billy from true self. According to Carl Rogers's self-actualization concept, every human needs positive regard from others to motivate their potential. In this case, Billy's self-actualization requires acceptance and approval without any condition by his father. 4. Maslows hierarchy of needs highlights that each person has their own set of motivation which is unrelated to any reward. Maslow tried to understand the driving force that motivates people to achieve certain targets. It has found that when one need of the people gets fulfilled, then they try to achieve another need. Maslow's hierarchy of need is mainly associated with five motivational needs which are depicted in a hierarchical pyramid. The first level of motivational power is physiological needs that mainly concern the satisfaction of hunger and thirst of an individual. The second stage of motivation is safety need that confirms the safety of an individual that make the person feel secure and stable in life. The third motivation is belongingness and love needs that depict the fact of one's need for love and to be loved by others. It also highlights the need to belong to someone and accepted by that person. Fourth motivation is associated with esteem need that guides an individual to feel independent. It also makes the person capable of self-estimation and guide them towards the achievement. The fifth and the last motivation is the need to live with unique potential. Every individual need to fulfill the lower level needs before going to the higher level. In this case of Daisy, a failure of lower level fulfillment has observed. Daisy spends too much time with her boyfriend for the last six months that she ignores her study and college application. Daisy is so much focused on the belongingness and love needs that she ignore the safety need of life associated with her study, which is necessary for making her career. Daisy finds her self-actualization with love needs that she never focus on the self-estimation to realize her current condition of regular study. Now she is facing the danger of not graduating and not attending the college. 5. The locus of control point affects the viewpoint of an individual and the way of interaction with the surroundings. There are two categories of people one who thinks they can control anything and anther believes they are controlled by the other factors. Control is defined as the power which can influence an individual's action. An individual's locus of control can have an internal position and external position. The people who believe in luck, fate or the influence of gods in success have the external locus of control. As they believe their success and failure depend on the environmental influences. The individual who believe their success is irrespective of the outside influences and they base their success on their own work, have an internal locus of control. Considering the physical and psychological health of the internal locus vs. external locus individuals it has found that the internal locus individuals are always pressurize themselves and always try to find out the drawback of their own work. These phenomena put them into psychological conflict compare to the external locus individuals. It also has some adverse effect on their physical health as they are always biased with hard work. On the other hand, external focus persons do not believe in their responsibilities. Thus, they do not suffer in mental conflict for the success rate of their work. The less psychological pressure helps them to maintain good physical health. 6. The reason for the Brian's passing up from the promotion at work can be discussed on the role of internal vs. external attributes and self-serving bias. Attributes give an explanation of an individual's behavior and that of others. There are mainly two attributes that play a key role in behavioral explanation. Internal attribution is concern about the individual, whereas the external attribution focuses on the environmental effect. Internal attribution is associated with the personality trait of an individual that focus on the motives and beliefs of one individual. External attribution assigns the cause of certain behavior in reaction to some external or environmental situation. It is a common tendency that people often explain their behavior on the basis of situational features. Here Brian can explain his failure may result due to some of his misbehavior towards the management, which is a part of internal attribution. The cause of misbehaving may originate from the external press ure of the situation, which can be categorized under external attribution. The self-serving bias highlights the tendency of an individual to consider internal attribution for success and external attribution for failure. These may result from the depression and low self-estimation. There are several factors and variables such as motivation, gender, age, culture, emotion, locus of control and self-awareness that contribute to the self-serving bias. Brian can explain his failure by self-serving bias that he has no fault towards work and the management or the work environment is only responsible for his failure. The external attribution always suppresses his success. 7. Angela is making an external attribution here. As she believes that the psychological exam system was unfair and making the environmental situation responsible for her fails in the test. Jo is making an internal attribution here. As Jo admitting that the result can be better if he studied hard. The only thing responsible for his failure is the lack of study. Self-serving bias characterized by the tendency of an individual to praise on the work whatever he or she has done if that leads to success and put the blame on the external bodies if the individual meet failure. Angela is using self-serving bias in this case. Both the students were judge by same psychology exam and both of them failed. But Jo is admitting that there is nothing wrong with the examination pattern. He is solely responsible for the failure as he did not study enough and he also admit that he might have studied hard. On the other hand, Angela did not admit her responsibility for the failure of the test. She is arguing that the examination pattern was unfair for her failure in the psychology test. 8. The personality of particular individuals comprised of five factor model such as openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism. These five factors can have high, moderate or low levels in individuals and act as a particular trait. The trait prominent in Jenny is openness. The high end of openness indicates the independence of the individual as well as the imagination power. The high end of openness also reflects an individual should have a broad interest towards various aspects of life and shows interest in new ideas. The low end of openness highlights the narrow interest towards things and conforming nature of the individual. A person with the low end of openness shows no interest in new ideas. In the case of Jenny, a low end of openness has found as she believes she is always right and never listen to her study group member's ideas. Kristina has a trait of extraversion. Kristina is sociable in nature and always like to meet new people and enjoy having a party with a friend. Her nature indicates a high end of extraversion. The high end feature of extraversion associates with the social approach of individuals and shows the friendly behavior towards others. The person also shows an adventurous mind. Whereas the low end of extraversion indicates the reclusive and quite nature of the individual. The person is always cautious of meeting new people. Brandon has a trait of agreeableness. The high end of agreeableness shows the sympathetic and soft-hearted nature of an individual. The individual is also good natured and polite to others. The low end of Agreeableness reflects the tough mind of the individual. The individual is rude towards others and ruthless in showing opinions. In this case, Brandon is identified with a low end of agreeableness as he avoids the ethnic restaurants for lunch as he thinks Korean and Indians are weird in nature. The following case of Cassandra and Tony shows the trait of conscientiousness. Whereas both of them shows opposite end of conscientiousness. Cassandra has a high end of the trait as she marked the calendar for remainders and appointments. The high end of conscientiousness reflects the well organized and disciplined nature of the individual. The person is very dependable and careful with matters. On the other hand, the low end of the trait highlights careless attitude with no organized plan towards work. The person is undependable. Tony has a low end of conscientiousness as he constantly forgets about meetings and events. Susana is identified with neuroticism trait. The high end of the trait associated with insecure feeling as well as nervousness towards a situation by an individual. The person is also very emotional in nature to certain things and has a tendency of self-pitying. The following case of Susana shows the hind end of neuroticism as she is always worried about her schoolwork, bills and about her family. She often checks her email, bank details, at least, ten times a day. On the other hand, the low end of neuroticism shows the calm behavior of the person. The person is quite relaxed and self-satisfied with the situation and felt secure with their decision.