CAPM (Capital Asset Pricing Model) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

CAPM (Capital Asset Pricing Model) - Essay Example and expected returns which is denoted as r. The ? is used as a measure of non diversified risk and implies that the expected return is the return on a risk free asset in addition to a risk premium (Laubscher, 2002). The risk premium will be equivalent to the market return in surplus of the risk free rate which is multiplied by the share portfolio. This is the reason that ? is regarded as the difference between the returns on various share portfolio. The formula for CAPM model is denoted below: R = Rf + ?(Rm - Rf) R = Expected return on the share/portfolio. Rf = Risk-free rate of return. ? = Beta (volatility of the share/portfolio relative to the market portfolio). Rm = Expected return on the market portfolio. Rm - Rf = Market risk premium (Laubscher, 2002). In the CAPM model risk is defined as the extent to which returns on share portfolio have covariance and variance with the market returns. ? is used for measuring risk and the basis for expected market returns. It is used as a meas ure for non diversified risk and is a relative measure of risk relative to the market portfolio. ... Government bonds and Treasury bills are used instead of this instrument (Laubscher, 2002). 2. Return in the market: The market portfolio constitutes of all kinds of risky assets and is one of the most available diversified portfolios. After the valuation of portfolio is done then it will be difficult to diversify the risk. The market return is the return on the market portfolio which constitutes of all risky assets. The rate of return is actually measured by the approximation of the stock indices which is used a proxy to the market. However, the problem arises regarding the choice of the index to be used as a proxy (Laubscher, 2002).The expected rate of return depends upon the market risk but it also depends upon the nature of the benchmark of the portfolios. However, investors are satisfied in investing in a limited number of benchmark portfolios. 3. Beta (?): This is one of the most crucial aspects of the CAPM model; as it helps in determining the difference between the expected ma rket return and the actual market rate of return. Portfolio betas are usually derived from the historical data and are useful in the measurement of the betas of the future (Rai University, n.d.). According to economic analysts the high beta shares tend to have a higher returns and lower betas shares tend to have low returns. The relationship between the average returns and beta is linear but the slope of risk and return relationship is not as steep as estimated by the CAPM model. Beta measures the relationship based on past returns and the derived results are more accurate than the standard deviation used to measure the relationship between risk and returns (Laubscher, 2002). Figure 1: Relationship of risk & return as per CAPM Model (Source: Myers, 2003) From the

3-D Magnetic Data Inversion with Physical Bound

3-D Magnetic Data Inversion with Physical Bound A new method Mohammad Rezaie1*, Sahar Moazam2 1 PhD in mineral exploration, Faculty of Mining, Petroleum and Geophysics, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran. 2 MSc in mineral exploration, Faculty of Mining, Petroleum and Geophysics, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran. Abstract Inversion of magnetic data is an important step in the interpretation of practical data. Smooth inversion is a common technique for inversion of magnetic data. Physical bound constraints can improve the solution of the magnetic inverse problem. However, how to introduce the bound constraint into the inversion procedure is important. Imposing bound constraints makes magnetic data inversion a non-linear inverse problem. In this study, a new algorithm for 3D inversion of magnetic data is developed which use an efficient penalization function for imposing bound constraints and Gauss Newton method to achieve the solution. An adaptive regularization method is used for choosing regularization parameter in this inversion approach. The inversion results of synthetic data show that the new method can produce models which adequately match with real location and shape of synthetic bodies. The test carried out on the field data from Mt. Milligan Cu-Au porphyry deposit shows that the new inversion approach could produce the magnetic susceptibility models consistent with the true structures. Keywords: Magnetic data, Inversion, physical bound, Gauss Newton, Regularization. 1. Introduction Magnetic surveys can provide useful information about the Earths interior. Magnetic measurements are usually used to delineate magnetic anomalous bodies and indicate their locations and depths. One of the most important topics in the quantitative interpretation of potential field data is the inversion of practical data (Rezaie et al. 2015). Inversion can be defined as a mathematical procedure that constructs a subsurface property (susceptibility) model using measured (magnetic) data by incorporating a priori information as available. The recovered models must predict the measured data adequately (Foks et al. 2014). 3D inversion of potential field data such as magnetic data is generally difficult (Jin et al. 2013). The main difficulty is the non-uniqueness of the solution in magnetic inverse problem. There are infinite equivalent source distributions that produce the same measured magnetic data set (Blakely 1996). The standard approach to overcome this issue is applying a priori infor mation. Several approaches have been introduced for incorporating priori information into the inversion process (Last and Kubik 1983; Barbosa and Silva 1994; Li and Oldenburg 1996, 1998, 2003; Pilkington 1997, 2008; Portniaguine and Zhdanov 1999; Farquharson 2008; Lelievre et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2015). Last and Kubik (1983) developed the compact inversion method which produce compact and structurally simple model. Guillen and Menichetti (1984) minimize the moment of inertia of the body with respect to the center of the body or along single axis passing through it. Barbosa and Silva (1994) generalize the moment of inertia functional to impose compactness along several axes. Li and Oldenburg (1996, 1998) developed a model objective function that produce smooth models. This method can locate anomaly sources accurately nevertheless, the values of the recovered model are smaller than the true values due to the smoothness effect of the objective function. Portniaguine and Zhdanov (1999) developed a focusing inversion method based on compact inversion method for potential field data. Barbosa and Silva (2006) developed an interactive method for inverting magnetic data with interfering anomalies produced by multiple, complex, and closely separated geologic sources. Farquharson (2008) used L 1 measure of Li and Oldenburgs model objective function to recover dipping structures and models which have angled interfaces.   Lelievre et al. (2009) used Li and Oldenburgs (1996, 1998) model objective function and developed advanced constrained inversion by geological information. Zhang et al. (2015) improved Li and Oldenburgs method by applying Lagrangian multipliers in the model objective function to add geological constraints. In the 3D inversion of potential field data, particular bounds of the physical property may be known. This physical bound constraint can improve the solution and make it more feasible (Rezaie et al. 2017a). Consequently, how to introduce the bound constraint into the inversion procedure becomes an important issue. Portniaguine and Zhdanov (1999, 2002) used a penalization algorithm to impose bound constraint in focusing inversion of potential field data. Li and Oldenburg (2003) chose a logarithmic barrier method incorporating bound constraints on the re covered smooth model. Zhang et al. (2015) imposed bound constraint in smooth inversion of potential field data via a method using Lagrangian multipliers. However, imposing bound constraint makes magnetic data inversion a non-linear inverse problem. Therefore, the logarithmic barrier and Lagrangian multipliers methods increase computation time. Another issue in solving non-linear inverse problem is choosing regularization parameter that can increase computation time (Farquharson and Oldenburg, 2004). In this study, we develop a new 3D magnetic data inversion method based on the Gauss- Newton (GN) algorithm that can incorporate bound constraints on the recovered model using penalization algorithm introduced by Portniaguine and Zhdanov (1999, 2002). Also, we will use an adaptive regularization method for regularization parameter selection in our magnetic data inversion method. Finally, the capabilities of the proposed method are illustrated by its application to the inversion of a synthetic data set and to the 3D inversion of magnetic data from the Mt. Milligan deposit at British Columbia, Canada. 2. Methodology 2.1. Forward model for 3D magnetic anomalies Susceptibility distribution in the sub-surface () produce magnetic field (T) at the surface. The purpose of forward modeling is to compute this magnetic field. The total component of the magnetic field is given by (Blakely 1995): (1) where (Henry.meter-1), R denotes the volume occupied by causative body. is distance and is magnetization vector which can be obtained as a vector sum: (2) where is earths magnetic field and is remanent magnetization. If we ignore remanent component, the magnetization will be in the direction of the earths field and can be obtained simply as: (3) To compute total component of the magnetic field in Eq. (1), it is required to discretize the subsurface under the survey area into rectangular prisms of known sizes and positions with constant susceptibilities. The formulation for computation of magnetic response for each rectangular prism was presented by Bhattacharyya (1964) and later simplified into a form that is more suitable for fast computer implementation (Rao and Babu 1991). We use the formulation developed by Rao and Babu (1991) to compute magnetic response resulting from individual prisms. If the observed magnetic anomalies are caused by M subsurface prisms, the magnetic field at the field point i is given by: (4) where N is the number of observation point. The forward modeling of magnetic data using Eq. (1) and Eq. (4) can be written as following matrix equation: (5) Here, G is forward operator matrix that maps the physical parameters space into the data space. denotes the vector of unknown model parameters and is data vector that is given by measurement data. There are some error in measurement data because of noise that is usually assumed to be uncorrelated and have Gaussian distribution (Rezaie et al. 2017b), So (6) where, is vector of observed data and is vector of data error. The main purpose of the magnetic inverse problem is to find a geologically plausible susceptibility model ()based on G and some measured data () at the noise level. 2.2. Inversion method In the typical minimum-structure inversion procedure, subsurface of the survey area is discretized into rectangular prisms (cells) of known sizes and positions with the values of the physical property (e.g. susceptibility) in the cells that are called the model parameters to be estimated in the inversion (Rezaie et al. 2015). The solution can be obtained by minimization of an objective function, which is a combination of a measure of misfit between observation and predicted data and a measure of complexity of the model subject to a physical bound constraint (Li and Oldenburg 1996): (7) where is a regularization parameter. L is lower susceptibility bound, U is the upper susceptibility bound and the misfit functional is defined as (8) Here, is data weighting matrix given by . Where,stands for the standard deviation of the noise in the ith datum, and is a stabilizing functional (stabilizer) which measure minimum norm of model structure (Li and Oldenburg 1996, 1998, 2003): (9) where are coefficients that affect the relative importance of derivative components in different directions. resembles first-order finite-difference matrices in x, y and z directions. We have to use an additional depth weighting matrix for compensating lack of the data sensitivity to the deeper model parameters (Zhdanov 2015): (10) Now, Eq. (9) can be reformulated to apply the depth weighting matrix to the objective function. (11) where is the cumulative first-order finite-difference matrix. Eq. (7) is reformulated using matrix notation to incorporate depth weighting easily: (12) where and . Eq. (12) is transformed into a space of weighted model parameters by replacing the variables and (Rezaie et al. 2017a): (13) The solution of Eq. (13) is obtained according to the regularization theory similar to the classical minimum norm optimization problem (Tikhonov et al. 1977). The solution of the magnetic inverse problem is obtained by minimizing this equation using the GN method. The upper (U) and lower (L) susceptibility bounds can be imposed during the inversion process to recover more feasible model. If an achieved susceptibility value falls outside the bounds, the value at that cell is projected back to the nearest upper or lower susceptibility bound (Portniaguine and Zhdanov 1999). To solve Eq. (13) with GN method, assume the obtained solution denoted by at the (n − 1)th iteration, and the predicted data corresponding to this model are .Then at the nth iteration, a model perturbation can be achieved by solving following equation so that the inverted model can be updated by (Aster et al. 2013): (14) where is the regularization parameter in nth iteration. Then the solution of the inverse problem in Eq. (7), is given by (15) In order to recover a more feasible model of the subsurface, upper (U) and lower (L) physical bounds of susceptibility are imposed in each iteration to force. If a given susceptibility value falls outside the bounds, the susceptibility value of that cell is projected back to the nearest physical bound value. The solution to Eq. (14) is also equivalent to the least-squares solution of (16) The least-squares solution of the Eq. (16) is obtained by a fast iterative method such as Lanczos Bidiagonalization (LB) (Pagie and Saunders 1982) at each GN iteration. therefore, the proposed algorithm would be suitable for large scale problems (Rezaie et al. 2017a,b). The GN iterations stop when the RMS misfit reaches an acceptable level or the model corrections become small enough (Pilkington 2008). We have used an adaptive method for choosing regularization parameter similar to which was proposed by Farquharson (2008) which is a fast and efficient algorithm for choosing regularization parameter. The regularization parameter is started at 100 () which is a relatively large value. If an inversion is performed with the regularization parameter fixed at this value, a model would be produced that had a small amount of structure and predicted data under fit the observations. At each iteration, the regularization parameter is damped to give a slow but steady progression of models with increasing structure and decreasing data misfits: (17) where    based on empirical experiments. 3. Synthetic test We apply our algorithm to a synthetic test to evaluate the reliability of the introduced method. The synthetic model consists of two different blocks with dimension 200 m 200 m 200 m which are embedded beneath the surface so that susceptibility of uniform background is zero. The Susceptibility of each block is 0.06 (SI). Perspective view of the true model is displayed in Fig. (1a). Fig. 1 perspective view of the synthetic model with 2 blocks (a). Magnetic anomaly produced by the synthetic model with 5 % Gaussian noise of the accurate datum magnitude. Depth to the top of the shallower block (block (1)) is 50 m and depth to the top of the deeper block (block (2)) is 100 m. The total-field anomaly data have been generated above the surface assuming an inducing field with inclination (I) of 75, declination (D) of 25 and a strength of 50000 nT. The data generated over a grid of 1000 m 1000 m with sample spacing of 25 m. There are 1600 data and 5 % Gaussian noise of the accurate datum magnitude has been added (Fig. 1b). The subsurface is divided into 40 40 20 = 32000 rectangular prisms with the same size of 25 m for inversion. The inverse problem has been solved using the proposed method that is described in the preceding section (). The solution obtained after 5 iterations with RMS of 0.05. Fig. 2 shows a plan section and a cross section through the recovered model from proposed inversion method. The result indicates acceptable smooth reconstruction of the synthetic multisource blocks at different depth levels below the surface. The recovered bodies in the model are smooth and adequately matched with real location of synthetic bodies. Fig. 2 Plan sections through the recovered susceptibility model obtained from the 3D inversion of magnetic data at depth= -125 m (a). A cross-sectional slice of the susceptibility model at Northing= 500 m (b). The borders indicate the true position of each body. 4. Inversion of field data Mt. Milligan is a Cu-Au porphyry deposit situated in central British Columbia. Geological information obtained from a major drilling program show the host rocks of the deposit are Mesozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks and contain intrusive monzonitic rocks that have accessory magnetite. There is an intensive hydrothermal alteration primarily in the region near the boundaries of the monzonite stock. The monzonite body is known as the MBX stock (Oldenburg et al. 1997). The copper and gold are concentrated in the potassic alteration zone, which is mainly around the contact of the monzonite intrusions (MBX) and may extend outward and into fractured volcanic rocks. However, magnetite is one of the strong indicators of the potassic alteration. In this region, magnetic data are acquired at 12.5 m spacing along lines in the east direction that spaced 50 m apart (Li and Oldenburg 1996). We use the data at 25 m spacing which yields 1920 data points. The reduced magnetic anomaly map is shown in Fig. (3). Fig. 3 The magnetic anomaly map of Mt. Milligan. The data are on 25 m 25 m grid. The direction of the inducing field is I= 75 and D= 25.73 with a strength of 58193 nT. It is assumed that each datum have an error whose standard deviation is equal to 5 percent of its magnitude (Li and Oldenburg 2003). To invert these data, the subsurface of the area is discretized into 48 40 18 = 34560 cells each of size 25 m. The positivity constraint was imposed which means lower (L) physical bounds of susceptibility are set to 0 SI. The solution is obtained after 112 iteration with RMS error of 0.05 which is about the predicted noise of the data. The recovered model is shown in Fig. (4) as one plan-section and one cross-section. The true edge of MBX stock and mineral assemblage which were derived from the drilling results overlaid on the cross-section. Fig. 4 The recovered susceptibility model shown in a plan-section at the depth of -80 m (a). A cross-section at the northing of 600 m overlaid by true boundary of monzonite body (MBX) with black line and mineral deposit with red shaded polygon (b). The results indicate that the anomalous body of magnetic susceptibility highs are mostly associated with the monzonite intrusion. There is a moderate anomalous body at the center of cross-section which is probably caused by magnetite content of potassic alteration. This area coincides with mineral deposit. Thus, the obtained solution is in a good agreement with true geologic boundaries of Mt. Milligan deposit. 5. Conclusions We have developed a new algorithm for inversion of magnetic data using Gauss Newton method. In each GN iteration LB method is used for solving least- square problem. Therefore, the proposed algorithm is efficient for large scale problems. We used an adaptive regularization method for choosing regularization parameter in each iteration which is a fast and efficient method for choosing regularization parameter. In the new algorithm, the physical bound constraint can be imposed during the inversion process via penalization function which does not need any transformation. Therefore, this method of imposing bound constraint is more efficient. The obtained results show the new developed 3D inversion method is able to produce a smooth solution which define the shape and extent of synthetic bodies adequately. Furthermore, the application of this inversion algorithm for a field magnetic data from Mt. Milligan deposit produced a model that is consistent with the available geological information. Compression methods such as wavelet compression which can compress the kernel matrix and using parallel programing that decrease the required memory and computation time will be subject of future works for large scale problems.

Customer Service Essay -- Business Management Studies

Customer Service Many business organisations have different definitions of customer service. For example, according to the Chartered Institute of Marketing, â€Å"Customer Service is what your business delivers to achieve customer satisfaction†. Another example is, according to the ACA Group, â€Å"Customer service is the ability of an organisation to constantly and consistently give the customer what they want and need†. All business organisations need to make certain that their customers are satisfied with the service they receive because; customers are the most important part of any successful organisations. Businesses such as, Barclays aim to exceed customer expectation in order to ensure that customers enjoy themselves, leave having enjoyed themselves and return in the coming future. Good customer service makes customers satisfied by fulfilling their needs first. Good customer service requires all staff to place themselves in the position of their customers. All staff should be aware of how they would like to be treated if, they were a customer, and deal their customers, for that reason. All business organisations should complete the A.R.T. of great service, to carry out a good customer service: Approachable- An organisation must create an open and friendly environment that will influence customers to come in with self-assurance so that, their matter can be dealt with. R esponsive- All staff should take responsibility of their action. Customer service should be flexible and provide precise and honest information, at all times. Timely- All customer services provide their services accurately and efficiently to new and existing customers, at all times. The following are the main activities of customer service: Ø Providing information Ø Giving advice Ø Providing assistance Ø Providing credit facilities Ø After-sales service Providing Information The type of information will depend on the product or service. Here are some examples, is the wool jumper flammable; how much is that laptop; when can you deliver the double-sized bed, what after-sales facilities do you provide? Getting the correct answers to these questions depends on the product and service knowledge of the sales staff, i.e. how well they have been trained. Giving Advice Advice is more accurate than information because, it involves more detail, greater specialist knowledge and modified to t... ... For example, to be faithful to the customers 3. Lost customers-For example, to encourage dissatisfied customers to complain 4. Employees- For example, to give staff training, to deal with complaints and problems quickly When receiving a complaint from an unhappy customer, the business must carry out the following: Ø Listen to the customer’s story Ø Ask for invoice/receipt to show date of purchase Ø If customers is angry, report to a manager Ø Examine the product When dealing a complaint from an unhappy customer, the business must carry out the following: Ø Advise customers of their views such as, legal requirements Ø Make an offers to customer such as, refunds or replacements Ø Give a receipt for products Ø Write on credit note any expiry date Many businesses record customer complaints so that, they can review the matter, and to improve its customer service. Details of each complaint can be recorded in several ways. For example, IKEA records all telephone complaints and directs them to the call centre at Stockport. Details of each complaint can be recorded onto the computer. Also, details of each complaint can also be recorded onto the ‘Customer Complaint Form’.

Literary Devices Essay

LITERARY DEVICES Copyright  © 2007 by Jay Braiman www. mrbraiman. com Literary devices refers to specific aspects of literature, in the sense of its universal function as an art form which expresses ideas through language, which we can recognize, identify, interpret and/or analyze. Literary devices collectively comprise the art form’s components; the means by which authors create meaning through language, and by which readers gain understanding of and appreciation for their works. They also provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual literary works to others, both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary techniques can rightly be called literary devices. Literary elements refers to particular identifiable characteristics of a whole text. They are not â€Å"used,† per se, by authors; they represent the elements of storytelling which are common to all literary and narrative forms. For example, every story has a theme, every story has a setting, every story has a conflict, every story is written from a particular point-of-view, etc. In order to be discussed legitimately as part of a textual analysis, literary elements must be specifically identified for that particular text. Literary techniques refers to any specific, deliberate constructions or choices of language which an author uses to convey meaning in a particular way. An author’s use of a literary technique usually occurs with a single word or phrase, or a particular group of words or phrases, at one single point in a text. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques are not necessarily present in every text; they represent deliberate, conscious choices by individual authors. â€Å"Literary terms† refers to the words themselves with which we identify and designate literary elements and techniques. They are not found in literature and they are not â€Å"used† by authors. Allegory: Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event. Lord of the Flies provides a compelling allegory of human nature, illustrating the three sides of the psyche through its sharply-defined main characters. Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds within close proximity, usually in consecutive words within the same sentence or line. Antagonist: Counterpart to the main character and source of a story’s main conflict. The person may not be â€Å"bad† or â€Å"evil† by any conventional moral standard, but he/she opposes the protagonist in a significant way. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) Anthropomorphism: Where animals or inanimate objects are portrayed in a story as people, such as by walking, talking, or being given arms, legs, facial features, human locomotion or other anthropoid form. (This technique is often incorrectly called personification. ) †¢ The King and Queen of Hearts and their playing-card courtiers comprise only one example of Carroll’s extensive use of anthropomorphism in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. Blank verse: Non-rhyming poetry, usually written in iambic pentameter. †¢ Most of Shakespeare’s dialogue is written in blank verse, though it does occasionally rhyme. Character: The people who inhabit and take part in a story. When discussing character, as distinct from characterization, look to the essential function of the character, or of all the characters as a group, in the story as a whole. †¢ Rather than focus on one particular character, Lord assembles a series of brief vignettes and anecdotes involving multiple characters, in order to give the reader the broadest possible spectrum of human behavior. Golding uses his main characters to represent the different parts of the human psyche, to illustrate mankind’s internal struggle between desire, intellect, and conscience. †¢ Characterization: The author’s means of conveying to the reader a character’s personality, life history, values, physical attributes, etc. Also refers directly to a description thereof. †¢ Atticus is characterized as an almost impossibly virtuous man, always doing what is right and imparting impeccable moral values to his children. Climax: The turning point in a story, at which the end result becomes inevitable, usually where something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the â€Å"dramatic high point† of a story. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of structure; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) †¢ The story reaches its climax in Act III, when Mercutio and Tybalt are killed and Romeo is banished from Verona. Conflict: A struggle between opposing forces which is the driving force of a story. The outcome of any story provides a resolution of the conflict(s); this is what keeps the reader reading. Conflicts can exist between individual characters, between groups of characters, between a character and society, etc. , and can also be purely abstract (i. e. , conflicting ideas). †¢ †¢ †¢ The conflict between the Montagues and Capulets causes Romeo and Juliet to behave irrationally once they fall in love. Jack’s priorities are in conflict with those of Ralph and Piggy, which causes him to break away from the group. Man-versus-nature is an important conflict in The Old Man and the Sea. Context: Conditions, including facts, social/historical background, time and place, etc. , surrounding a given situation. †¢ Madame Defarge’s actions seem almost reasonable in the context of the Revolution. Creative license: Exaggeration or alteration of objective facts or reality, for the purpose of enhancing meaning in a fictional context. †¢ Orwell took some creative license with the historical events of the Russian Revolution, in order to clarify the ideological conflicts. Dialogue: Where characters speak to one another; may often be used to substitute for exposition. †¢ Since there is so little stage direction in Shakespeare, many of the characters’ thoughts and actions are revealed through dialogue. Dramatic irony: Where the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the characters in the story are not aware. †¢ Macbeth responds with disbelief when the weird sisters call him Thane of Cawdor; ironically, unbeknownst to him, he had been granted that title by king Duncan in the previous scene. Exposition: Where an author interrupts a story in order to explain something, usually to provide important background information. †¢ The first chapter consists mostly of exposition, running down the family’s history and describing their living conditions. Figurative language: Any use of language where the intended meaning differs from the actual literal meaning of the words themselves. There are many techniques which can rightly be called figurative language, including metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, onomatopoeia, verbal irony, and oxymoron. (Related: figure of speech) †¢ The poet makes extensive use of figurative language, presenting the speaker’s feelings as colors, sounds and flavors. Foil: A character who is meant to represent characteristics, values, ideas, etc. which are directly and diametrically opposed to those of another character, usually the protagonist. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. †¢ The noble, virtuous father Macduff provides an ideal foil for the villainous, childless Macbeth. Foreshadowing: Where future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the author before they happen. Foreshadowing can take many forms and be accomplished in many ways, with varying degrees of subtlety. However, if the outcome is deliberately and explicitly revealed early in a story (such as by the use of a narrator or flashback structure), such information does not constitute foreshadowing. †¢ Willy’s concern for his car foreshadows his eventual means of suicide. Hyperbole: A description which exaggerates, usually employing extremes and/or superlatives to convey a positive or negative attribute; â€Å"hype. † †¢ The author uses hyperbole to describe Mr. Smith, calling him â€Å"the greatest human being ever to walk the earth. † Iambic pentameter: A poetic meter wherein each line contains ten syllables, as five repetitions of a two-syllable pattern in which the pronunciation emphasis is on the second syllable. †¢ Shakespeare wrote most of his dialogue in iambic pentameter, often having to adjust the order and nature of words to fit the syllable pattern, thus endowing the language with even greater meaning. Imagery: Language which describes something in detail, using words to substitute for and create sensory stimulation, including visual imagery and sound imagery. Also refers to specific and recurring types of images, such as food imagery and nature imagery. (Not all descriptions can rightly be called imagery; the key is the appeal to and stimulation of specific senses, usually visual. It is often advisable to specify the type of imagery being used, and consider the significance of the images themselves, to distinguish imagery from mere description. ) †¢ The author’s use of visual imagery is impressive; the reader is able to see the island in all its lush, colorful splendor by reading Golding’s detailed descriptions. Irony (a. k. a. Situational irony): Where an event occurs which is unexpected, in the sense that it is somehow in absurd or mocking opposition to what would be expected or appropriate. Mere coincidence is generally not ironic; neither is mere surprise, nor are any random or arbitrary occurrences. (Note: Most of the situations in the Alanis Morissette song are not ironic at all, which may actually make the song ironic in itself. ) See also Dramatic irony; Verbal irony. Metaphor: A direct relationship where one thing or idea substitutes for another. †¢ Shakespeare often uses light as a metaphor for Juliet; Romeo refers to her as the sun, as â€Å"a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear,† and as a solitary dove among crows. Mood: The atmosphere or emotional condition created by the piece, within the setting. Mood refers to the general sense or feeling which the reader is supposed to get from the text; it does not, as a literary element, refer to the author’s or characters’ state of mind. (Note that mood is a literary element, not a technique; the mood must therefore be described or identified. It would be incorrect to simply state, â€Å"The author uses mood. †) †¢ The mood of Macbeth is dark, murky and mysterious, creating a sense of fear and uncertainty. Motif: A recurring important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that it can be expressed as a single word or fragmentary phrase, while a theme usually must be expressed as a complete sentence. †¢ Blood is an important motif in A Tale of Two Cities, appearing numerous times throughout the novel. Onomatopoeia: Where sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds actually sound like the sounds they describe. †¢ Ouch! EEK! Crash! Oxymoron: A contradiction in terms. †¢ Romeo describes love using several oxymorons, such as â€Å"cold fire,† â€Å"feather of lead† and â€Å"sick health,† to suggest its contradictory nature. Paradox: Where a situation is created which cannot possibly exist, because different elements of it cancel each other out. †¢ In 1984, â€Å"doublethink† refers to the paradox where history is changed, and then claimed to have never been changed. †¢ A Tale of Two Cities opens with the famous paradox, â€Å"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times. † Parallelism: Use of similar or identical language, structures, events or ideas in different parts of a text. Personification (I): Where inanimate objects or abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with human self-awareness; where human thoughts, actions, perceptions and emotions are directly attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. (Not to be confused with anthropomorphism. ) Personification (II): Where an abstract concept, such as a particular human behavior or a force of nature, is represented as a person. †¢ The Greeks personified natural forces as gods; for example, the god Poseidon was the personification of the sea and its power over man. Plot: Sequence of events in a story. Most literary essay tasks will instruct the writer to â€Å"avoid plot summary;† the term is therefore rarely useful for response or critical analysis. When discussing plot, it is generally more useful to consider and analyze its structure, rather than simply recapitulate â€Å"what happens. † Point-of-view: The identity of the narrative voice; the person or entity through whom the reader experiences the story. May be third-person (no narrator; abstract narrative voice, omniscient or limited) or first-person (narrated by a character in the story or a direct observer). Point-of-view is a commonly misused term; it does not refer to the author’s or characters’ feelings, opinions, perspectives, biases, etc. Though it is written in third-person, Animal Farm is told from the limited point-of-view of the common animals, unaware of what is really happening as the pigs gradually and secretively take over the farm. Writing the story in first-person point-of-view enables the reader to experience the soldier’s fear and uncertainty, limiting the narrative to what only he saw, thought and felt during the battle. Protagonist: The main character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The person is not necessarily â€Å"good† by any conventional moral standard, but he/she is the person in whose plight the reader is most invested. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) Repetition: Where a specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, usually in close proximity, to emphasize a particular idea. †¢ The repetition of the words â€Å"What if†¦Ã¢â‚¬  at the beginning of each line reinforces the speaker’s confusion and fear. Setting: The time and place where a story occurs. The setting can be specific (e. g. , New York City in 1930) or ambiguous (e. g. , a large urban city during economic hard times). Also refers directly to a description thereof. When discussing or analyzing setting, it is generally insufficient to merely identify the time and place; an analysis of setting should include a discussion of its overall impact on the story and characters. †¢ The novel is set in the South during the racially turbulent 1930’s, when blacks were treated unfairly by the courts. †¢ With the island, Golding creates a pristine, isolated and uncorrupted setting, in order to show that the boys’ actions result from their own essential nature rather than their environment. Simile: An indirect relationship where one thing or idea is described as being similar to another. Similes usually contain the words â€Å"like† or â€Å"as,† but not always. †¢ The simile in line 10 describes the lunar eclipse: â€Å"The moon appeared crimson, like a drop of blood hanging in the sky. † †¢ The character’s gait is described in the simile: â€Å"She hunched and struggled her way down the path, the way an old beggar woman might wander about. † Speaker: The â€Å"voice† of a poem; not to be confused with the poet him/herself. Analogous to the narrator in prose fiction. Structure: The manner in which the various elements of a story are assembled. †¢ The individual tales are told within the structure of the larger framing story, where the 29 travelers gather at the Inn at Southwark on their journey to Canterbury, telling stories to pass the time. †¢ The play follows the traditional Shakespearean five-act plot structure, with exposition in Act I, development in Act II, the climax or turning point in Act III, falling action in Act IV, and resolution in Act V. Symbolism: The use of specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. This term is commonly misused, describing any and all representational relationships, which in fact are more often metaphorical than symbolic. A symbol must be something tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolizes must be something abstract or universal. (In other words, a symbol must be something you can hold in your hand or draw a picture of, while the idea it symbolizes must be something you can’t hold in your hand or draw a picture of. ) †¢ Golding uses symbols to represent the various aspects of human nature and civilization as they are revealed in the novel. The conch symbolizes order and authority, while its gradual deterioration and ultimate destruction metaphorically represent the boys’ collective downfall. Theme: The main idea or message conveyed by the piece. A theme should generally be expressed as a complete sentence; an idea expressed by a single word or fragmentary phrase is usually a motif. †¢ Orwell’s theme is that absolute power corrupts absolutely. †¢ The idea that human beings are essentially brutal, savage creatures provides the central theme of the novel. Tone: The apparent emotional state, or â€Å"attitude,† of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as conveyed through the language of the piece. Tone refers only to the narrative voice; not to the author or characters. It must be described or identified in order to be analyzed properly; it would be incorrect to simply state, â€Å"The author uses tone. † †¢ The poem has a bitter and sardonic tone, revealing the speaker’s anger and resentment. †¢ The tone of Gulliver’s narration is unusually matter-of-fact, as he seems to regard these bizarre and absurd occurrences as ordinary or commonplace. Tragedy: Where a story ends with a negative or unfortunate outcome which was essentially avoidable, usually caused by a flaw in the central character’s personality. Tragedy is really more of a dramatic genre than a literary element; a play can be referred to as a tragedy, but tragic events in a story are essentially part of the plot, rather than a literary device in themselves. When discussing tragedy, or analyzing a story as tragic, look to the other elements of the story which combine to make it tragic. Tragic hero/tragic figure: A protagonist who comes to a bad end as a result of his own behavior, usually cased by a specific personality disorder or character flaw. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) †¢ Willy Loman is one of the best-known tragic figures in American literature, oblivious to and unable to face the reality of his life. Tragic flaw: The single characteristic (usually negative) or personality disorder which causes the downfall of the protagonist. †¢ Othello’s tragic flaw is his jealousy, which consumes him so thoroughly that he is driven to murder his wife rather than accept, let alone confirm, her infidelity. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) Verbal irony: Where the meaning of a specific expression is, or is intended to be, the exact opposite of what the words literally mean. (Sarcasm is a tone of voice that often accompanies verbal irony, but they are not the same thing. ) †¢ Orwell gives this torture and brainwashing facility the ironic title, â€Å"Ministry of Love. †

Construction Of Human Muscles Health And Social Care Essay

Smooth musculus contracts involuntarily, contraction of this musculus is controlled by the nervous system automatically and unconsciously. Contractions are rhythmic and slow. It is responsible for motion of nutrient through the digestive piece of land and for motion of other organic structure variety meats. Smooth musculuss control automatic, nonvoluntary motions such as those of take a breathing and of the digestive variety meats. It makes up the walls of the digestive piece of land, respiratory piece of land, GU piece of land, blood vass, and lymphatic vass. Smooth musculus is nonstriated because it lacks the striations ( sets ) of skeletal musculuss. Smooth musculus cells are little, mononucleated ( frequently with gap junction ) , and fusiform. There is merely one karyon located at the centre of the cell. Muscle tissue consist nuclei per fibre and nervus tissue consist of karyon of glial cells. Neuron and musculus tissue have nucleus and fibres. Neurotransmitters and musculus tissue have chondriosomes. Muscle tissue consists of cells that have the ability to contract and move organic structure. Muscle tissue is composed of long cells called musculus fibres that are capable of undertaking when stimulated by nervus urges. Nervous tissue sense stimulation and transmits signals form one portion to another. nervous tissue contains cells that react to stimuli and carry on an urge. The functional unit of nervous tissue is the nerve cell, or nervus cells, which is specialized to convey signals called nervus urges. It consists of a cell organic structure and two or more extensions, or procedures, called dendrites and axons. Dendrites are cell subdivisions that receive urges form other nerve cells or from receptors. The axon is a subdivision of the cell that transmits urges off from the cyton. Neurotransmitters are chemicals secreted into the synaptic spread ( spread between two nervousnesss or a nervus and a musculus ) by the terminal of a terminal subdivision. They transmit urges across th e synapse signifier one cell to another. In a spinal physiological reaction, urges pass from ( 1 ) a receptor to ( 2 ) a centripetal nerve cell to ( 3 ) an interneuron in the spinal cord to ( 4 ) a motor nerve cell to ( 5 ) a musculus or secretory organ. Motor nerve cells transmit and distribute urges from the cardinal nervous system to musculuss and secretory organs, or effecters. Epithelial tissue consists of cells fitted tightly together to organize a uninterrupted bed of cells. One surface of the sheet is exposed because it lines a pit, such as the lms of the bowel, or covers the organic structure. The other surface of an epithelial bed is attached to the underlying tissue by a acellular cellar membrane composed of bantam fibres and nonliving polysaccharide stuff produced by the epithelial cells. The cellar membrane attaches an epithelial tissue to the connective tissue. The cellar membrane consists of glycoproteins secreted by epithelial cells. Epithelial cells are held together by tight junctions and adhering junctions. Tight junctions extend throughout the surface and around the margin of an epithelial cell and seal it tightly to next cells. The junction is formed by blending the cell membranes of next cells with meshing membrane lipoproteins. The intercellular infinite is thin. Tight junctions seal epithelial cells to one another and have fused parts of the plasma membranes. Proteins in the membranes seal off the intercellular infinite, so it is hard for some substances to go through between the cells. In desmosomes, a submicroscopic infinite separates the opposing cell membranes, and intracellular ceratin fibres anchor transmembrane glycoproteins that bind the cells together. Desmosomes are seals between cells with ceratin fibrils grounding the two cells. Desmosomes are one type of adhering junction. Still another type of junction is the spread junction. Desmosomes and adhering junctions are found between cells that form a sheet of tissue. Gap junctions are protein composites that form channels in membranes. In the spread junction, cannular passageways and channels exist between cells, and little ions and molecules pass from cell to cell. Smooth and cardiac musculus tissue has these junctions, but epithelial tissues do non. Regeneration means cell or tissue growing that replaces lost constructions, damaged/dead cells by the same type of cells. It involves production of the same cell type, root cells may bring forth and distinguish to replace decease cells. Regeneration requires integral connective tissue staging. The regeneration takes topographic point in clean lesions where infection is non present in cut or scratch on the tegument. If the harm over a big country, so the underlying connective tissue cells and fibroblasts are involved in tissue fix. In a simple skin hurt, the deep bed of graded squamous epithelial tissue divides. The new stratified squamous epithelial cells push themselves upward toward the surface of the tegument. the harm or lesion is rapidly and wholly restored to normal. If a big country of tegument is damaged, fluid will get away from the broken capillaries. The capillary fluid prohibitionists and seals the lesions organizing a strikebreaker. Epithelial cells multiply at the borders of the strikebreaker and go on to turn over the damaged country until it is covered. When deep tissue is damaged the suturas bring together the borders of the lesion. The lesions have a enormous sum of serous fluid that leaks out onto the lesion. This helps to organize a curdling ( coagulum ) that seals the lesion. The clot contains tissue fragments and white blood cells. The epithelial cells run alonging the capillaries and fibroblasts of connective tissue are quickly renewing. New vascular tissue starts to organize and multiply across the lesion along with connective tissue formation. Fibroblast cells are active in doing new collagen fibres. Capillaries keeping the borders steadfastly together and collagenic fibres shorten cut downing cicatrix tissue less seeable. Fibrosis is a procedure of replacing of damaged tissue with cicatrix tissue. Scar tissue does non reconstruct normal map. The cicatrix tissue formed depends on the extent of tissue harm. It helps to keep an organ together. Granulation occur in a big unfastened lesion with little or big tissue loss. It causes the surface country to hold a gravelly texture. Fibroblasts will be active in production of new collagenic fibres. In granulation procedure a fluid is secreted, this fluid has strong bactericidal belong ingss which helps cut down the hazard of infection during lesion healing. The ureter would use smooth musculus, smooth musculus and specialised epithelial tissue of the vesica wall capable of great shrinking and stretching. Smooth musculus signifiers beds in the wall of the urinary piece of lands. The nephritic capsule consist of dense hempen connective tissue covers the kidney and is uninterrupted with the outer bed of the ureter at the hilum of the kidney. The nephritic facia is heavy hempen connective tissue, it surrounds an ground tackles and kidney. The outer bed of ureter composed of hempen connective tissue. In female the urethra is tightly bound to the anterior vaginal wall by hempen connective tissue. Adipose tissue is type of loose hempen connective tissue that consist of big sum of adipose cells. This adipose tissue is found around the kidneys.